712: Kalette

Certification Related to the Government of Haiti Under Section 7045(E)(1) of the Department of State, Foreign Operations, and Related Programs Appropriations Act, 2015

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Pursuant to the authority vested in the Secretary of State, including under section 7045(e)(1) of the Department of State, Foreign Operations, and Related Programs Appropriations Act, 2015 (Div. J, Pub. L. 113-235), I hereby certify that Haiti is taking steps to hold free and fair parliamentary elections and to seat a new Haitian Parliament; is selecting judges in a transparent manner and respecting the independence of the judiciary; is combating corruption, including implementing the anti-corruption law by prosecuting corrupt officials; and is improving governance and implementing financial transparency and accountability requirements for government institutions.

This Certification shall be published in the Federal Register, and copies shall be transmitted to the appropriate committees of Congress.

Dated: April 1, 2015.

John F. Kerry,

Secretary of State.

[FR Doc. 2015-08468 Filed 4-10-15; 8:45 am]

BILLING CODE 4710-10-P

Definition and Management of Hypertension Among Haitian Immigrants: A Qualitative Study

Other reported alternative, culturally based approaches included 5 kob wouj (a red five-cent piece) (n=1), baby aspirin (n=3), fey zanmann (n=11), papaya and papaya leaves (n=2), oil of lwil maskreti (Castor oil) (n=2), fey metsyen (n=12), lay (garlic) (n=12), fey lougawou (n=4), and simen kontra (n=22). These herbal remedies were either imported from Haiti or came directly from the participants’ backyards where participants had planted them for easy access. As one participant stated:

Oh. I can take metsyen [leaf], zanmann [leaf], lougawou [leaf]. I have my garden outside. Whenever I need I just go outside, I take and boil them. When I am done drinking these leaves, I pee a lot. It lowers my blood pressure. Papaya leaf, it lowers the blood pressure more than the pill. You can get addicted to the pill. You keep taking the pill the doctor gave you, but it is not good for your intestine. (P2)

This participant reiterated that she believed culturally based herbal medicines were effective in lowering blood pressure. She discussed her preference for alternative approaches for hypertension management. She expressed that this preference was because of the potential addictive effects of prescribed medications. The5-kob wouj (a red five-cent piece) was placed in the middle of the head along with the lwil maskreti, an oil. This was believed to lower blood pressure. Baby aspirin was believed to enhance blood circulation. Fey zanmann was used as a tea and also applied straight to the forehead with the oil of maskreti. Fey metsyen, fey lougarou, and simen kontra were also prepared as a tea. Papaya was blended and drunk as a juice. Papaya leaf was smeared with lwil maskreti and placed on the forehead to lower blood pressure. Garlic bulb was used to make tea and was also boiled along with other leaves and placed in the refrigerator to be consumed throughout the day for water intake.

Zanmann '' Tropical Almond | Mangeons LAKAY

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I remember spending endless hours sitting in the backyard, after collecting several ZANMANNs (Tropical Almonds) that I would shamelessly enjoy, from the tree that my father had planted there.The tree's latin name is actually Terminalia catappa whose origin is of India. No matter how hard I would try to describe the fruit to some of my friends over here, they would not know what I would refer to.

See, ZANMANN (The fruit) is creole for Amande which some people think means ALMOND.But the ALMOND and the Terminalia catappa's fruit are two different things to my taste buds. They probably come from the same family however. I'm not too sure.

I used to not just enjoy the fruit (which you could eat with its bear skin btw) ,but I would also be armed with a hammer. YES! A HAMMER! I know I used to be between the ages of 10 and 15 when I would sit in the backyard using my father's hammer but this was never considered a hazard back home lol . ''What's the hammer for?'' you might ask.Well, what else than to crack open the fruit so I could reach the nut that would lay inside of it as a desired treasure! It would take an eternity to do so but these endless minutes were totally worth it !

Terminalia catappa medicinal uses:

The leaves have many medicinal uses including diaphoretic, anti-indigestion, and anti-dysentery activities. An infusion of the young leaves or scraped bark are occasionally taken as a potion for treating mouth infections.

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Pras - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

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This article is about Pras, the musical artist. For the computer science concept "polynomial-time randomized approximation scheme" or PRAS, see polynomial-time approximation scheme.PrasBirth namePraskazrel Samuel MichelBorn(1972-10-19) October 19, 1972 (age 42)Brooklyn, New York, United StatesGenresHip hop, soul, reggae,Occupation(s)Rapper, multi-instrumentalist, singer, songwriter, record producer, arrangerInstrumentskeyboards, samplerYears active1992''presentLabelsColumbia, Ruffhouse, Guerrilla EntertainmentAssociated actsFugees, Refugee Camp All-StarsPras (//; born Praskazrel Samuel Michel on October 19, 1972) is a two-time Grammy-winning American rapper, best known as one of the founding members of the critically acclaimed hip hop group, the Fugees, which included his cousin Wyclef Jean and recording artist Lauryn Hill.

Biography[edit]Early life[edit]Born in Brooklyn, New York and raised in Irvington, New Jersey, Pras cultivated an early interest in music. When he was 15, Pras met Lauryn Hill, while both attended Columbia High School, South Orange, New Jersey. In 1988, Pras introduced Lauryn to Wyclef Jean. Pras Michel, Wyclef Jean and Lauryn Hill began to rehearse under the guidance of Kool and the Gang's producer, Ronald Khalis Bell, and subsequently they formed a musical group called The Rap Translators in 1989 (also known as Tranzlator Crew.)

Music career[edit]In 1994, before and during the time that The Fugees were recording their first album Blunted on Reality, under the supervision of Ronald Khalis Bell, Pras attended Rutgers College and Yale University, pursuing a double major in Philosophy and Psychology.[1] In 1996, The Fugees achieved historic crossover success with The Score, which went multi-platinum. Pras has also forged a successful solo career, beginning with an international hit single from his first full-length solo LP, "Ghetto Supastar (That Is What You Are)", featuring M½a and Ol' Dirty Bastard. "Ghetto Superstar" became a top ten single in 1999, and the eighth most played single; it was received with critical acclaim and earned Pras a performance at the World Music Awards. The hit single was included in the soundtrack for the film Bulworth. "Ghetto Supastar" spent eight weeks in the UK Top 5, peaking at No. 2 in July 1998,[2] and reached US No. 15 a month later. "Blue Angels", from the same album, was a UK Top 10 hit, reaching No. 6 in November.[2] Pras also featured on the track "Turn You On" by Swedish artist DeDe[3] which was released in 2007. "Turn You On" was also written and produced by Pras Michel. After nine weeks on Sweden's single chart, it peaked at No. 2. He also featured "Pushin'" from the album Equalize by Swami, which was released in 2007.

Film career[edit]After his cameo debut in the 1999 film, Mystery Men, Pras gained an interest in Hollywood. In 2000, Pras starred in the New Line film, Turn It Up. In early 2002, he appeared in the Sony and Urban World release Higher Ed, and Go for Broke in which he starred and produced. He also co-starred in three 20th Century Fox films in 2007. These included The Mutant Chronicles.

In 2006, Pras created Skid Row, Los Angeles, a documentary account of his nine-day experience posing as a homeless person living in downtown Los Angeles. Using a hidden camera, Pras captured the reality of homelessness. The film was produced by Teryn Fogel.[4]Skid Row was released on August 24, 2007 to widespread critical acclaim.[5]

In 2009, Pras travelled to Somalia to film a documentary entitled Paper Dreams to highlight piracy off the African coast. During filming pirates invaded the ship he was on, the MV Maersk Alabama and took the Captain of the ship hostage. Due to be released in 2014, the documentary remains unfinished due to a legal dispute.[6]

In 2010, Pras created a documentary entitled Sweet Mickey For Prezidan. The documentary chronicled the rise of Haitian musician Michel Martelly, through his election to fight corruption as President of Haiti, an election campaign that was strongly endorsed by Pras.[7]

Discography[edit]Albums[edit]Singles[edit]As lead artist[edit]As featured artist[edit]Acting and producing career[edit]Mystery Men (1999) '' Tony C (credited as Prakazrel Michel)Turn It Up (2000) - Denzel/Diamond (credited as Pras Michel) (co-producer)Higher Ed (2001) - Ed Green (credited as Pras Michel) (executive producer)Go For Broke (2002) - Jackson/Jackie (credited as Pras Michel) (producer)Nora's Hair Salon (2004)Careful What You Wish For (2004) '' Zen Salesman (credited as Pras Michel)Feel The Noise (2007) '' ElectricFirst Night (2007) '' himself (producer)Skid Row (2007) '' himself (producer)The Mutant Chronicles (2007) - Captain Michaels (producer)Paper Dreams (2010) - himself (producer)Sweet Mickey for Prezidan (2012) - himself (producer)References[edit]Sources[edit]^Rahul (May 17, 2012). "Pras Talks 2Pac, Suge Knight, Wyclef, Lauryn Hill & Beef on the Champs Podcast". Dajaz1.com. Retrieved May 19, 2012. ^ abRoberts, David (2006). British Hit Singles & Albums (19th ed.). London: Guinness World Records Limited. p. 362. ISBN 1-904994-10-5. ^http://www.dede.se^"IMDB "Skid Row"". IMDB. Retrieved 2010-12-04. ^"Skid Row 83% Rotten Tomatoes". Retrieved 2013-06-13. ^"TMZ Pras Michel Lawsuit". Retrieved 2013-06-13. ^"IMDB "Sweet Mickey for Prezidan"". Retrieved 2013-06-13. ^"Pras Album & Song Chart History: Billboard 200". Billboard. ^"Pras Album & Song Chart History: R&B/Hip-Hop Albums". Billboard. ^ abcHung, Steffen. "Discographie Pras Michel". German Charts Portal. Hung Medien (Steffen Hung). ^ abcHung, Steffen. "Discography Pras Michel". Norwegian Charts Portal. Hung Medien (Steffen Hung). ^ abcHung, Steffen. "Discography Pras Michel". New Zealand Charts Portal. Hung Medien (Steffen Hung). ^ abcHung, Steffen. "Discography Pras Michel". Swedish Charts Portal. Hung Medien (Steffen Hung). ^ abcHung, Steffen. "Discographie Pras Michel". Swiss Charts Portal. Hung Medien (Steffen Hung). ^"Pras Michel > UK charts". Official Charts Company. ^ abHung, Steffen. "Discography Pras Michel". Australian Charts Portal. Hung Medien (Steffen Hung). ^ abHung, Steffen. "Discographie Pras Michel". Austrian Charts Portal. Hung Medien (Steffen Hung). ^ abHung, Steffen. "Discografie Pras Michel". Belgium (Flanders) Charts Portal. Hung Medien (Steffen Hung). ^ abHung, Steffen. "Discography Pras Michel". Finnish Charts Portal. Hung Medien (Steffen Hung). ^ ab"Pras Michel > UK Charts". Official Charts Company. External links[edit]PersondataNamePrasAlternative namesShort descriptionAmerican rapperDate of birth1972-10-19Place of birthBrooklyn, New York, United StatesDate of deathPlace of death

Sulfur - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

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Sulfur, 16SSpectral lines of sulfur

General propertiesName, symbolsulfur, SPronunciation//SUL-fÉrAppearancelemon yellow sintered microcrystalsSulfur in the periodic tableAtomic number16Standard atomic weight32.06[1] (32.059''32.076)[2]Element category polyatomic nonmetalGroup, blockgroup 16 (chalcogens), p-blockPeriodperiod 3Electron configuration[Ne] 3s2 3p4per shell2, 8, 6Physical propertiesPhasesolidMelting point388.36 K '‹(115.21 °C, '‹239.38 °F)Boiling point717.8 K '‹(444.6 °C, '‹832.3 °F)Densitynear r.t.alpha: 2.07 g·cm''3beta: 1.96 g·cm''3gamma: 1.92 g·cm''3when liquid, at m.p.1.819 g·cm''3Critical point1314 K, 20.7 MPaHeat of fusionmono: 1.727 kJ·mol''1Heat of vaporizationmono: 45 kJ·mol''1Molar heat capacity22.75 J·mol''1·K''1vapor pressureP (Pa)1101001 k10 k100 kat T (K)375408449508591717Atomic propertiesOxidation states6, 5, 4, 3, 2, 1, ''1, ''2 '‹(a strongly acidic oxide)ElectronegativityPauling scale: 2.58Ionization energies1st: 999.6 kJ·mol''12nd: 2252 kJ·mol''13rd: 3357 kJ·mol''1(more)Covalent radius105±3 pmVan der Waals radius180 pmMiscellaneaCrystal structure'‹orthorhombicThermal conductivity0.205 W·m''1·K''1 (amorphous)Electrical resistivity2—1015 Î(C)·m (at 20 °C) (amorphous)Magnetic orderingdiamagnetic[3]Bulk modulus7.7 GPaMohs hardness2.0CAS Registry Number7704-34-9HistoryDiscoveryChinese[4](before 2000 BCE)Recognized as an element byAntoine Lavoisier (1777)Most stable isotopesMain article: Isotopes of sulfur· referencesSulfur or sulphur (see spelling differences) is a chemical element with symbol S and atomic number 16. It is an abundant, multivalentnon-metal. Under normal conditions, sulfur atoms form cyclic octatomic molecules with chemical formula S8. Elemental sulfur is a bright yellow crystalline solid when at room temperature. Chemically, sulfur can react as either an oxidant or a reducing agent. It oxidizes most metals and several nonmetals, including carbon, which leads to its negative charge in most organosulfur compounds, but it reduces several strong oxidants, such as oxygen and fluorine.

Sulfur occurs naturally as the pure element (native sulfur) and as sulfide and sulfate minerals. Elemental sulfur crystals are commonly sought after by mineral collectors for their distinct, brightly colored polyhedron shapes. Being abundant in native form, sulfur was known in ancient times, mentioned for its uses in ancient India, ancient Greece, China and Egypt. Fumes from burning sulfur were used as fumigants, and sulfur-containing medicinal mixtures were used as balms and antiparasitics. Sulfur is referred to in the Bible as brimstone (burn stone) in English, with this name still used in several nonscientific tomes.[5] It was needed to make the best quality of black gunpowder. In 1777, Antoine Lavoisier helped convince the scientific community that sulfur was a basic element rather than a compound.

Elemental sulfur was once extracted from salt domes where it sometimes occurs in nearly pure form, but this method has been obsolete since the late 20th century. Today, almost all elemental sulfur is produced as a byproduct of removing sulfur-containing contaminants from natural gas and petroleum. The element's largest commercial use (after mostly being converted to sulfuric acid) is to produce sulfate and phosphate fertilizers, because of the relatively high requirement of plants for sulfur and phosphorus. Sulfuric acid is also a primary industrial chemical outside fertilizer manufacture. Other well-known uses for the element are in matches, insecticides and fungicides. Many sulfur compounds are odoriferous, and the smell of odorized natural gas, skunk scent, grapefruit, and garlic is due to sulfur compounds. Hydrogen sulfide produced by living organisms imparts the characteristic odor to rotting eggs and other biological processes.

Sulfur is an essential element for all life, and is widely used in biochemical processes. In metabolic reactions, sulfur compounds serve as both fuels (electron donors) and respiratory (oxygen-alternative) materials (electron acceptors). Sulfur in organic form is present in the vitamins biotin and thiamine, the latter being named for the Greek word for sulfur. Sulfur is an important part of many enzymes and in antioxidant molecules like glutathione and thioredoxin. Organically bonded sulfur is a component of all proteins, as the amino acidscysteine and methionine. Disulfide bonds are largely responsible for the mechanical strength and insolubility of the protein keratin, found in outer skin, hair, and feathers, and the element contributes to their pungent odor when burned.

Spelling and etymologyEditSulfur is historically a Latin word. The original Latin spelling was sulpur, but this was Hellenized to sulphur; the form sulfur appears toward the end of the Classical period. (The true Greek word for sulfur, θεá–Îν, is the source of the international chemical prefix thio-.) In 12th-century Anglo-French, it was sulfre; in the 14th century the Latin ph was restored, for sulphre; and by the 15th century the full Latin spelling was restored, for sulfur, sulphur. The parallel f~ph spellings continued in Britain until the 19th century, when the word was standardized as sulphur.[6]Sulfur was the form chosen in the United States, whereas Canada uses both. However, the IUPAC adopted the spelling sulfur in 1990, as did the Nomenclature Committee of the Royal Society of Chemistry in 1992, restoring the spelling sulfur to Britain.[7] The Oxford Dictionaries note that "in chemistry ... the -f- spelling is now the standard form in all related words in the field in both British and US contexts."[8]

The late Latin form also continues in the Romance languages: French soufre, Italian zolfo (from solfo), Spanish azufre (from a§ufre, from earlier §ufre), Portuguese enxofre (from xofre). The Spanish and Portuguese forms are prefixed with the Arabic article, despite not being Arabic words.[6] The root has been traced back to reconstructed proto-Indo-European*sw(C)plÌ¥ (genitive *sulpl"s), a nominal derivative of *swelp 'to burn', a lineage also preserved in the Germanic languages, where it is found for example as modern German Schwefel, Dutch zwavel, and Swedish svavel, and as Old Englishswefl.[9]

CharacteristicsEditPhysical propertiesEditSulfur forms polyatomic molecules with different chemical formulas, with the best-known allotrope being octasulfur, cyclo-S8. The point group of cyclo-S8 is D4d and its dipole moment is 0 D.[10] Octasulfur is a soft, bright-yellow solid with only a faint odor, similar to that of matches.[11] It melts at 115.21 °C (239.38 °F), boils at 444.6 °C (832.3 °F) and sublimes easily.[5] At 95.2 °C (203.4 °F), below its melting temperature, cyclo-octasulfur changes from α-octasulfur to the β-polymorph.[12] The structure of the S8 ring is virtually unchanged by this phase change, which affects the intermolecular interactions. Between its melting and boiling temperatures, octasulfur changes its allotrope again, turning from β-octasulfur to Î"-sulfur, again accompanied by a lower density but increased viscosity due to the formation of polymers.[12] At even higher temperatures, however, the viscosity decreases as depolymerization occurs. Molten sulfur assumes a dark red color above 200 °C (392 °F). The density of sulfur is about 2 g·cm''3, depending on the allotrope; all of its stable allotropes are excellent electrical insulators.

Chemical propertiesEditSulfur burns with a blue flame concomitant with formation of sulfur dioxide, notable for its peculiar suffocating odor. Sulfur is insoluble in water but soluble in carbon disulfide and, to a lesser extent, in other nonpolar organic solvents, such as benzene and toluene. The first and the second ionization energies of sulfur are 999.6 and 2252 kJ·mol''1, respectively. Despite such figures, the +2 oxidation state is rare, with +4 and +6 being more common. The fourth and sixth ionization energies are 4556 and 8495.8 kJ·mol''1, the magnitude of the figures caused by electron transfer between orbitals; these states are only stable with strong oxidants as fluorine, oxygen, and chlorine.

AllotropesEditSulfur forms over 30 solid allotropes, more than any other element.[13] Besides S8, several other rings are known.[14] Removing one atom from the crown gives S7, which is more deeply yellow than S8. HPLC analysis of "elemental sulfur" reveals an equilibrium mixture of mainly S8, but with S7 and small amounts of S6.[15] Larger rings have been prepared, including S12 and S18.[16][17]

Amorphous or "plastic" sulfur is produced by rapid cooling of molten sulfur'--for example, by pouring it into cold water. X-ray crystallography studies show that the amorphous form may have a helical structure with eight atoms per turn. The long coiled polymeric molecules make the brownish substance elastic, and in bulk this form has the feel of crude rubber. This form is metastable at room temperature and gradually reverts to crystalline molecular allotrope, which is no longer elastic. This process happens within a matter of hours to days, but can be rapidly catalyzed.

IsotopesEditSulfur has 25 known isotopes, four of which are stable: 32S (95.02%), 33S (0.75%), 34S (4.21%), and 36S (0.02%). Other than 35S, with a half-life of 87 days and formed in cosmic ray spallation of 40Ar, the radioactive isotopes of sulfur have half-lives less than 3 hours.

When sulfide minerals are precipitated, isotopic equilibration among solids and liquid may cause small differences in the δS-34 values of co-genetic minerals. The differences between minerals can be used to estimate the temperature of equilibration. The δC-13 and δS-34 of coexisting carbonate minerals and sulfides can be used to determine the pH and oxygen fugacity of the ore-bearing fluid during ore formation.

In most forest ecosystems, sulfate is derived mostly from the atmosphere; weathering of ore minerals and evaporites contribute some sulfur. Sulfur with a distinctive isotopic composition has been used to identify pollution sources, and enriched sulfur has been added as a tracer in hydrologic studies. Differences in the natural abundances can be used in systems where there is sufficient variation in the 34S of ecosystem components. Rocky Mountain lakes thought to be dominated by atmospheric sources of sulfate have been found to have different δ34S values from lakes believed to be dominated by watershed sources of sulfate.

Natural occurrenceEdit32S is created inside massive stars, at a depth where the temperature exceeds 2.5—109 K, by the fusion of one nucleus of silicon plus one nucleus of helium.[18] As this is part of the alpha process that produces elements in abundance, sulfur is the 10th most common element in the universe.

Sulfur, usually as sulfide, is present in many types of meteorites. Ordinary chondrites contain on average 2.1% sulfur, and carbonaceous chondrites may contain as much as 6.6%. It is normally present as troilite (FeS), but there are exceptions, with carbonaceous chondrites containing free sulfur, sulfates and other sulfur compounds.[19] The distinctive colors of Jupiter's volcanic moon Io are attributed to various forms of molten, solid and gaseous sulfur.[20]

On Earth, elemental sulfur can be found near hot springs and volcanic regions in many parts of the world, especially along the Pacific Ring of Fire; such volcanic deposits are currently mined in Indonesia, Chile, and Japan. Such deposits are polycrystalline, with the largest documented single crystal measuring 22—16—11 cm.[21] Historically, Sicily was a large source of sulfur in the Industrial Revolution.[22]

Native sulfur is synthesised by anaerobic bacteria acting on sulfate minerals such as gypsum in salt domes.[23][24] Significant deposits in salt domes occur along the coast of the Gulf of Mexico, and in evaporites in eastern Europe and western Asia. Native sulfur may be produced by geological processes alone. Fossil-based sulfur deposits from salt domes have until recently been the basis for commercial production in the United States, Russia, Turkmenistan, and Ukraine.[25] Currently, commercial production is still carried out in the Osiek mine in Poland. Such sources are now of secondary commercial importance, and most are no longer worked.

Common naturally occurring sulfur compounds include the sulfide minerals, such as pyrite (iron sulfide), cinnabar (mercury sulfide), galena (lead sulfide), sphalerite (zinc sulfide) and stibnite (antimony sulfide); and the sulfates, such as gypsum (calcium sulfate), alunite (potassium aluminium sulfate), and barite (barium sulfate). On Earth, just as upon Jupiter's moon Io, elemental sulfur occurs naturally in volcanic emissions, including emissions from hydrothermal vents.

ProductionEditSulfur may be found by itself and historically was usually obtained in this way, while pyrite has been a source of sulfur via sulfuric acid.[disputed'' discuss][26] In volcanic regions in Sicily, in ancient times, it was found on the surface of the Earth, and the "Sicilian process" was used: sulfur deposits were piled and stacked in brick kilns built on sloping hillsides, with airspaces between them. Then, some sulfur was pulverized, spread over the stacked ore and ignited, causing the free sulfur to melt down the hills. Eventually the surface-borne deposits played out, and miners excavated veins that ultimately dotted the Sicilian landscape with labyrinthine mines. Mining was unmechanized and labor-intensive, with pickmen freeing the ore from the rock, and mine-boys or carusi carrying baskets of ore to the surface, often through a mile or more of tunnels. Once the ore was at the surface, it was reduced and extracted in smelting ovens. The conditions in Sicilian sulfur mines were horrific, prompting Booker T. Washington to write "I am not prepared just now to say to what extent I believe in a physical hell in the next world, but a sulphur mine in Sicily is about the nearest thing to hell that I expect to see in this life.".[27]

Today's sulfur production is as a side product of other industrial processes such as oil refining; in these processes, sulfur often occurs as undesired or detrimental compounds that are extracted and converted to elemental sulfur. As a mineral, native sulfur under salt domes is thought to be a fossil mineral resource, produced by the action of ancient bacteria on sulfate deposits. It was removed from such salt-dome mines mainly by the Frasch process.[25] In this method, superheated water was pumped into a native sulfur deposit to melt the sulfur, and then compressed air returned the 99.5% pure melted product to the surface. Throughout the 20th century this procedure produced elemental sulfur that required no further purification. However, due to a limited number of such sulfur deposits and the high cost of working them, this process for mining sulfur has not been employed in a major way anywhere in the world since 2002.[28][29]

Today, sulfur is produced from petroleum, natural gas, and related fossil resources, from which it is obtained mainly as hydrogen sulfide. Organosulfur compounds, undesirable impurities in petroleum, may be upgraded by subjecting them to hydrodesulfurization, which cleaves the C''S bonds:[28][29]

R-S-R + 2 H2 '†' 2 RH + H2SThe resulting hydrogen sulfide from this process, and also as it occurs in natural gas, is converted into elemental sulfur by the Claus process. This process entails oxidation of some hydrogen sulfide to sulfur dioxide and then the comproportionation of the two:[28][29]

3 O2 + 2 H2S '†' 2 SO2 + 2 H2OSO2 + 2 H2S '†' 3 S + 2 H2OOwing to the high sulfur content of the Athabasca Oil Sands, stockpiles of elemental sulfur from this process now exist throughout Alberta, Canada.[30] Another way of storing sulfur is as a binder for concrete, the resulting product having many desirable properties (see sulfur concrete).[31] Sulfur is still mined from surface deposits in poorer nations with volcanos, such as Indonesia, and worker conditions have not improved much since Booker T. Washington's days.[32]

The world production of sulfur in 2011 amounted to 69 million tonnes (Mt), with more than 15 countries contributing more than 1 Mt each. Countries producing more than 5 Mt are China (9.6), US (8.8), Canada (7.1) and Russia (7.1).[33] While the production has been slowly increasing from 1900 to 2010, the price was much less stable, especially in the 1980s and around 2010.[34]

CompoundsEditCommon oxidation states of sulfur range from ''2 to +6. Sulfur forms stable compounds with all elements except the noble gases.

Sulfur polycationsEditSulfur polycations, S82+, S42+ and S192+ are produced when sulfur is reacted with mild oxidising agents in a strongly acidic solution.[35] The colored solutions produced by dissolving sulfur in oleum were first reported as early as 1804 by C.F Bucholz, but the cause of the color and the structure of the polycations involved was only determined in the late 1960s. S82+ is deep blue, S42+ is yellow and S192+ is red.[12]

SulfidesEditTreatment of sulfur with hydrogen gives hydrogen sulfide. When dissolved in water, hydrogen sulfide is mildly acidic:[5]

H2S HS'' + H+Hydrogen sulfide gas and the hydrosulfide anion are extremely toxic to mammals, due to their inhibition of the oxygen-carrying capacity of hemoglobin and certain cytochromes in a manner analogous to cyanide and azide (see below, under precautions).

Reduction of elemental sulfur gives polysulfides, which consist of chains of sulfur atoms terminated with S'' centers:

2 Na + S8 '†' Na2S8This reaction highlights arguably the single most distinctive property of sulfur: its ability to catenate (bind to itself by formation of chains). Protonation of these polysulfide anions gives the polysulfanes, H2Sx where x = 2, 3, and 4.[36] Ultimately reduction of sulfur gives sulfide salts:

16 Na + S8 '†' 8 Na2SThe interconversion of these species is exploited in the sodium-sulfur battery. The radical anion S3'' gives the blue color of the mineral lapis lazuli.

Oxides, oxoacids and oxoanionsEditThe principal sulfur oxides are obtained by burning sulfur:

S + O2 '†' SO22 SO2 + O2 '†' 2 SO3Other oxides are known, sulfur rich oxides e.g. sulfur monoxide and disulfur mono- and dioxides and higher oxides containing peroxo groups.

Sulfur forms a number of sulfur oxoacids, some of which cannot be isolated and are only known through their salts. Sulfur dioxide and sulfites (SO2''3) are related to the unstable sulfurous acid (H2SO3). Sulfur trioxide and sulfates (SO2''4) are related to sulfuric acid. Sulfuric acid and SO3 combine to give oleum, a solution of pyrosulfuric acid (H2S2O7) in sulfuric acid.

Thiosulfate salts (S2O2''3), sometimes referred as "hyposulfites", used in photographic fixing (HYPO) and as reducing agents, feature sulfur in two oxidation states. Sodium dithionite (Na2S2O4), contains the more highly reducing dithionite anion (S2O2''4).

Halides and oxyhalidesEditThe two main sulfur fluorides are sulfur hexafluoride, a dense gas used as nonreactive and nontoxic propellant, and sulfur tetrafluoride, a rarely used organic reagent that is highly toxic.[37]Sulfur dichloride and disulfur dichloride are important industrial chemicals. Sulfuryl chloride and chlorosulfuric acid are derivatives of sulfuric acid; thionyl chloride (SOCl2) is a common reagent in organic synthesis.[38]

PnictidesEditAn important S''N compound is the cage tetrasulfur tetranitride (S4N4). Heating this compound gives polymeric sulfur nitride ((SN)x), which has metallic properties even though it does not contain any metal atoms. Thiocyanates contain the SCN'' group. Oxidation of thiocyanate gives thiocyanogen, (SCN)2 with the connectivity NCS-SCN. Phosphorus sulfides are numerous, the most important commercially being the cages P4S10 and P4S3.[39][40]

Metal sulfidesEditThe principal ores of copper, zinc, nickel, cobalt, molybdenum, and other metals are sulfides. These materials tend to be dark-colored semiconductors that are not readily attacked by water or even many acids. They are formed, both geochemically and in the laboratory, by the reaction of hydrogen sulfide with metal salts. The mineral galena (PbS) was the first demonstrated semiconductor and found a use as a signal rectifier in the cat's whiskers of early crystal radios. The iron sulfide called pyrite, the so-called "fool's gold," has the formula FeS2.[41] The upgrading of these ores, usually by roasting, is costly and environmentally hazardous. Sulfur corrodes many metals via the process called tarnishing.

Organic compoundsEditSome of the main classes of sulfur-containing organic compounds include the following:[42]

Compounds with carbon''sulfur bonds are uncommon with the notable exception of carbon disulfide, a volatile colorless liquid that is structurally similar to carbon dioxide. It is used as a reagent to make the polymer rayon and many organosulfur compounds. Unlike carbon monoxide, carbon monosulfide is only stable as a dilute gas, as in the interstellar medium.[43]

Organosulfur compounds are responsible for some of the unpleasant odors of decaying organic matter. They are used in the odoration of natural gas and cause the odor of garlic and skunk spray. Not all organic sulfur compounds smell unpleasant at all concentrations: the sulfur-containing monoterpenoidgrapefruit mercaptan in small concentrations is responsible for the characteristic scent of grapefruit, but has a generic thiol odor at larger concentrations. Sulfur mustard, a potent vesicant, was used in World War I as a disabling agent.[44]

Sulfur-sulfur bonds are a structural component to stiffen rubber, in a way similar to the biological role of disulfide bridges to rigidify proteins (see biological below). In the most common type of industrial "curing" or hardening and strengthening of natural rubber, elemental sulfur is heated with the rubber to the point that chemical reactions form disulfide bridges between isoprene units of the polymer. This process, patented in 1843, allowed rubber to become a major industrial product, especially automobile tires. Because of the heat and sulfur, the process was named vulcanization, after the Roman god of the forge and volcanism.

AntiquityEditBeing abundantly available in native form, sulfur (Latinsulphur) was known in ancient times and is referred to in the Torah (Genesis). English translations of the Bible commonly referred to burning sulfur as "brimstone", giving rise to the term "fire-and-brimstone" sermons, in which listeners are reminded of the fate of eternal damnation that await the unbelieving and unrepentant. It is from this part of the Bible that Hell is implied to "smell of sulfur" (likely due to its association with volcanic activity). According to the Ebers Papyrus, a sulfur ointment was used in ancient Egypt to treat granular eyelids. Sulfur was used for fumigation in preclassical Greece;[45] this is mentioned in the Odyssey.[46]Pliny the Elder discusses sulfur in book 35 of his Natural History, saying that its best-known source is the island of Melos. He mentions its use for fumigation, medicine, and bleaching cloth.[47]

A natural form of sulfur known as shiliuhuang was known in China since the 6th century BC and found in Hanzhong.[48] By the 3rd century, the Chinese discovered that sulfur could be extracted from pyrite.[48] Chinese Daoists were interested in sulfur's flammability and its reactivity with certain metals, yet its earliest practical uses were found in traditional Chinese medicine.[48] A Song Dynasty military treatise of 1044 AD described different formulas for Chinese black powder, which is a mixture of potassium nitrate (KNO3), charcoal, and sulfur.

Indian alchemists, practitioners of "the science of mercury" (sanskrit rasaśāstra, रसशास्त्र), wrote extensively about the use of sulfur in alchemical operations with mercury, from the eighth century AD onwards.[49] In the rasaśāstra tradition, sulfur is called "the smelly" (sanskrit gandhaka, गन्धक).

Early Europeanalchemists gave sulfur its own alchemical symbol, a triangle at the top of a cross. In traditional skin treatment before the modern era of scientific medicine, elemental sulfur was used, mainly in creams, to alleviate conditions such as scabies, ringworm, psoriasis, eczema, and acne. The mechanism of action is unknown'--though elemental sulfur does oxidize slowly to sulfurous acid, which in turn (through the action of sulfite) acts as a mild reducing and antibacterial agent.[50][51][52]

Modern timesEditIn 1777, Antoine Lavoisier helped convince the scientific community that sulfur was an element, not a compound. Sulfur deposits in Sicily were the dominant supply source for over half a century. Approximately 2000 tons per year of sulfur were imported into Marseilles, France for the production of sulfuric acid via the Leblanc process by the late 18th century. In industrializing Britain, with the repeal of tariffs on salt in 1824, demand for sulfur from Sicily surged upward. The increasing British control and exploitation of the mining, refining and transportation of the sulfur, coupled with the failure of this lucrative export to transform Sicily's backward and impoverished economy led to the 'Sulfur Crisis' of 1840, when King Ferdinand II gave a monopoly of the sulfur industry to a French firm, violating an earlier 1816 trade agreement with Britain. A peaceful negotiated solution was eventually mediated by France.[53][54]

In 1867, sulfur was discovered in underground deposits in Louisiana and Texas. The highly successful Frasch process was developed to extract this resource.[55]

In the late 18th century, furniture makers used molten sulfur to produce decorative inlays in their craft. Because of the sulfur dioxide produced during the process of melting sulfur, the craft of sulfur inlays was soon abandoned. Molten sulfur is sometimes still used for setting steel bolts into drilled concrete holes where high shock resistance is desired for floor-mounted equipment attachment points. Pure powdered sulfur was used as a medicinal tonic and laxative.[25] With the advent of the contact process, the majority of sulfur today is used to make sulfuric acid for a wide range of uses, particularly fertilizer.[56]

ApplicationsEditSulfuric acidEditElemental sulfur is mainly used as a precursor to other chemicals. Approximately 85% (1989) is converted to sulfuric acid (H2SO4):

2 S + 3 O2 + 2 H2O '†' 2 H2SO4Because of its importance, sulfuric acid was considered an excellent indicator of a country's industrial well-being.[57] For example with 32.5 million tonnes in 2010, the United States produces more sulfuric acid every year than any other inorganic industrial chemical.[34] The principal use for the acid is the extraction of phosphate ores for the production of fertilizer manufacturing. Other applications of sulfuric acid include oil refining, wastewater processing, and mineral extraction.[25]

Other large-scale sulfur chemicalsEditSulfur reacts directly with methane to give carbon disulfide, which is used to manufacture cellophane and rayon.[25] One of the direct uses of sulfur is in vulcanization of rubber, where polysulfide chains crosslink organic polymers. Sulfites are heavily used to bleachpaper and as preservatives in dried fruit. Many surfactants and detergents, e.g. sodium lauryl sulfate, are produced are sulfate derivatives. Calcium sulfate, gypsum, (CaSO4·2H2O) is mined on the scale of 100 million tons each year for use in Portland cement and fertilizers.

When silver-based photography was widespread, sodium and ammonium thiosulfate were widely used as "fixing agents." Sulfur is a component of gunpowder.

FertilizerEditSulfur is increasingly used as a component of fertilizers. The most important form of sulfur for fertilizer is the mineral calcium sulfate. Elemental sulfur is hydrophobic (that is, it is not soluble in water) and, therefore, cannot be directly utilized by plants. Over time, soil bacteria can convert it to soluble derivatives, which can then be utilized by plants. Sulfur improves the use efficiency of other essential plant nutrients, particularly nitrogen and phosphorus.[58] Biologically produced sulfur particles are naturally hydrophilic due to a biopolymer coating. This sulfur is, therefore, easier to disperse over the land (via spraying as a diluted slurry), and results in a faster release.

Plant requirements for sulfur are equal to or exceed those for phosphorus. It is one of the major nutrients essential for plant growth, root nodule formation of legumes and plants protection mechanisms. Sulfur deficiency has become widespread in many countries in Europe.[59][60][61] Because atmospheric inputs of sulfur continue to decrease, the deficit in the sulfur input/output is likely to increase, unless sulfur fertilizers are used.

Fine chemicalsEditOrganosulfur compounds are used in pharmaceuticals, dyestuffs, and agrochemicals. Many drugs contain sulfur, early examples being antibacterial sulfonamides, known as sulfa drugs. Sulfur is a part of many bacterial defense molecules. Most β-lactam antibiotics, including the penicillins, cephalosporins and monolactams contain sulfur.[42]

Magnesium sulfate, known as Epsom salts when in hydrated crystal form, can be used as a laxative, a bath additive, an exfoliant, magnesium supplement for plants, or (when in dehydrated form) as a desiccant.

Fungicide and pesticideEditElemental sulfur is one of the oldest fungicides and pesticides. "Dusting sulfur," elemental sulfur in powdered form, is a common fungicide for grapes, strawberry, many vegetables and several other crops. It has a good efficacy against a wide range of powdery mildew diseases as well as black spot. In organic production, sulfur is the most important fungicide. It is the only fungicide used in organically farmed apple production against the main disease apple scab under colder conditions. Biosulfur (biologically produced elemental sulfur with hydrophilic characteristics) can be used well for these applications.

Standard-formulation dusting sulfur is applied to crops with a sulfur duster or from a dusting plane. Wettable sulfur is the commercial name for dusting sulfur formulated with additional ingredients to make it water miscible.[62][63] It has similar applications and is used as a fungicide against mildew and other mold-related problems with plants and soil.

Elemental sulfur powder is used as an "organic" (i.e. "green") insecticide (actually an acaricide) against ticks and mites. A common method of use is to dust clothing or limbs with sulfur powder.

Diluted solutions of lime sulfur (made by combinding calcium hydroxide with elemental sulfur in water), are used as a dip for pets to destroy ringworm (fungus), mange and other dermatoses and parasites. Sulfur candles consist of almost pure sulfur in blocks or pellets that are burned to fumigate structures. It is no longer used in the home due to the toxicity of the products of combustion.

Bactericide in winemaking and food preservationEditSmall amounts of sulfur dioxide gas addition (or equivalent potassium metabisulfite addition) to fermented wine to produce traces of sulfurous acid (produced when SO2 reacts with water) and its sulfite salts in the mixture, has been called "the most powerful tool in winemaking."[64] After the yeast-fermentation stage in winemaking, sulfites absorb oxygen and inhibit aerobic bacterial growth that otherwise would turn ethanol into acetic acid, souring the wine. Without this preservative step, indefinite refrigeration of the product before consumption is usually required. Similar methods go back into antiquity but modern historical mentions of the practice go to the fifteenth century. The practice is used by large industrial wine producers and small organic wine producers alike.

Sulfur dioxide and various sulfites have been used for their antioxidant antibacterial preservative properties in many other parts of the food industry also. The practice has declined since reports of an allergy-like reaction of some persons to sulfites in foods.

Pharmaceutical useEditSulfur is used in pharmaceutical skin preparations for the treatment of acne and other conditions. it acts as a keratolytic agent and also kills bacteria, fungi, scabies mites and other parasites.[65] Precipitated sulfur and colloidal sulfur are used, in form of lotions, creams, powders, soaps, and bath additives, for the treatment of acne vulgaris, acne rosacea, and seborrhoeic dermatitis.[66]

Biological roleEditProtein and organic cofactorsEditSulfur is an essential component of all living cells. It is the seventh or eighth most abundant element in the human body by weight, being about as common as potassium, and a little more common than sodium or chlorine. A 70 kg (150 lb) human body contains about 140 grams of sulfur.

In plants and animals, the amino acidscysteine and methionine contain most of the sulfur. The element is thus present in all polypeptides, proteins, and enzymes that contain these amino acids. In humans, methionine is an essential amino acid that must be ingested. However, save for the vitamins biotin and thiamine, cysteine and all sulfur-containing compounds in the human body can be synthesized from methionine. The enzyme sulfite oxidase is needed for the metabolism of methionine and cysteine in humans and animals.

Disulfide bonds (S-S bonds) formed between cysteine residues in peptide chains are very important in protein assembly and structure. These covalent bonds between peptide chains confer extra toughness and rigidity.[67] For example, the high strength of feathers and hair is in part due to their high content of S-S bonds and their high content of cysteine and sulfur. Eggs are high in sulfur because large amounts of the element are necessary for feather formation, and the characteristic odor of rotting eggs is due to hydrogen sulfide. The high disulfide bond content of hair and feathers contributes to their indigestibility and to their characteristic disagreeable odor when burned.

Homocysteine and taurine are other sulfur-containing acids that are similar in structure, but not coded by DNA, and are not part of the primary structure of proteins. Many important cellular enzymes use prosthetic groups ending with -SH moieties to handle reactions involving acyl-containing biochemicals: two common examples from basic metabolism are coenzyme A and alpha-lipoic acid.[67] Two of the 13 classical vitamins, biotin and thiamine contain sulfur, with the latter being named for its sulfur content. Sulfur plays an important part, as a carrier of reducing hydrogen and its electrons, for cellular repair of oxidation. Reduced glutathione, a sulfur-containing tripeptide, is a reducing agent through its sulfhydryl (-SH) moiety derived from cysteine. The thioredoxins, a class of small protein essential to all known life, using neighboring pairs of reduced cysteines to act as general protein reducing agents, to similar effect.

Methanogenesis, the route to most of the world's methane, is a multistep biochemical transformation of carbon dioxide. This conversion requires several organosulfur cofactors. These include coenzyme M, CH3SCH2CH2SO3'', the immediate precursor to methane.[68]

Metalloproteins and inorganic cofactorsEditInorganic sulfur forms a part of iron-sulfur clusters as well as many copper, nickel, and iron proteins. Most pervasive are the ferrodoxins, which serve as electron shuttles in cells. In bacteria, the important nitrogenase enzymes contains an Fe-Mo-S cluster, is a catalyst that performs the important function of nitrogen fixation, converting atmospheric nitrogen to ammonia that can be used by microorganisms and plants to make proteins, DNA, RNA, alkaloids, and the other organic nitrogen compounds necessary for life.[69]

Sulfur metabolism and the sulfur cycleEditThe sulfur cycle was the first of the biogeochemical cycles to be discovered. In the 1880s, while studying Beggiatoa (a bacterium living in a sulfur rich environment), Sergei Winogradsky found that it oxidized hydrogen sulfide (H2S) as an energy source, forming intracellular sulfur droplets. Winogradsky referred to this form of metabolism as inorgoxidation (oxidation of inorganic compounds). He continued to study it together with Selman Waksman until the 1950s.

Sulfur oxidizers can use as energy sources reduced sulfur compounds, including hydrogen sulfide, elemental sulfur, sulfite, thiosulfate, and various polythionates (e.g., tetrathionate).[70] They depend on enzymes such as sulfur oxygenase and sulfite oxidase to oxidize sulfur to sulfate. Some lithotrophs can even use the energy contained in sulfur compounds to produce sugars, a process known as chemosynthesis. Some bacteria and archaea use hydrogen sulfide in place of water as the electron donor in chemosynthesis, a process similar to photosynthesis that produces sugars and utilizes oxygen as the electron acceptor. The photosyntheticgreen sulfur bacteria and purple sulfur bacteria and some lithotrophs use elemental oxygen to carry out such oxidization of hydrogen sulfide to produce elemental sulfur (S0), oxidation state = 0. Primitive bacteria that live around deep ocean volcanic vents oxidize hydrogen sulfide in this way with oxygen; see giant tube worm for an example of large organisms that use hydrogen sulfide (via bacteria) as food to be oxidized.

The so-called sulfate-reducing bacteria, by contrast, "breathe sulfate" instead of oxygen. They use organic compounds or molecular hydrogen as the energy source. They use sulfur as the electron acceptor, and reduce various oxidized sulfur compounds back into sulfide, often into hydrogen sulfide. They can grow on a number of other partially oxidized sulfur compounds (e.g. thiosulfates, thionates, polysulfides, sulfites). The hydrogen sulfide produced by these bacteria is responsible for some of the smell of intestinal gases (flatus) and decomposition products.

Sulfur is absorbed by plants via the roots from soil as the sulfate and transported as a phosphate ester. Sulfate is reduced to sulfide via sulfite before it is incorporated into cysteine and other organosulfur compounds.[71]

SO42'' '†' SO32'' '†' H2S '†' cysteine '†' methioninePrecautionsEditElemental sulfur is non-toxic, as generally are the soluble sulfate salts, such as Epsom salts. Soluble sulfate salts are poorly absorbed and laxative. However, when injected parenterally, they are freely filtered by the kidneys and eliminated with very little toxicity in multi-gram amounts.

When sulfur burns in air, it produces sulfur dioxide. In water, this gas produces sulfurous acid and sulfites, which are antioxidants that inhibit growth of aerobic bacteria and allow its use as a food additive in small amounts. However, at high concentrations these acids harm the lungs, eyes or other tissues. In organisms without lungs such as insects or plants, it otherwise prevents respiration in high concentrations. Sulfur trioxide (made by catalysis from sulfur dioxide) and sulfuric acid are similarly highly corrosive, due to the strong acids that form on contact with water.

The burning of coal and/or petroleum by industry and power plants generates sulfur dioxide (SO2), which reacts with atmospheric water and oxygen to produce sulfuric acid (H2SO4) and sulfurous acid (H2SO3). These acids are components of acid rain, which lower the pH of soil and freshwater bodies, sometimes resulting in substantial damage to the environment and chemical weathering of statues and structures. Fuel standards increasingly require that fuel producers extract sulfur from fossil fuels to prevent acid rain formation. This extracted and refined sulfur represents a large portion of sulfur production. In coal-fired power plants, flue gases are sometimes purified. More modern power plants that use synthesis gas extract the sulfur before they burn the gas.

Hydrogen sulfide is as toxic as hydrogen cyanide, and kills by the same mechanism, though hydrogen sulfide is less likely to cause surprise poisonings from small inhaled amounts, because of its disagreeable warning odor. Though pungent at first, however, hydrogen sulfide quickly deadens the sense of smell'--so a victim may breathe increasing quantities and be unaware of its presence until severe symptoms occur, which can quickly lead to death. Dissolved sulfide and hydrosulfide salts are also toxic by the same mechanism.

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Air Force Right to Fire General Who Threatened Troops with Treason

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Air Force Right to Fire General Who Threatened Troops with TreasonApril 10, 2015

Major General James N. Post III

The Air Force's decision to remove Major General James Post from his position as vice commander of Air Combat Command was the right move.

As we said in our February 5 letter to the Air Force Secretary, Major General Post had to be held accountable. When he told service members it would be ''treason'' to communicate with Congress about the A-10's capabilities it showed he was unfit for command.

Members of the military have a constitutional right to communicate with Congress. To threaten them with an offense as serious as treason goes against the very oath that all military personnel and Major General Post, himself, had to take.

We look forward to an investigation into the retaliation against those who brought Major General Post's remarks to light.

Read POGO's letter to the Air Force Secretary.

Read the Air Force Inspector General's investigation into Major General Post.

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Ms. Brian's areas of expertise include: National Security, Government Oversight, Wasteful Defense Spending, Ethics, Open Government, Whistleblower Issues

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Authors:Danielle Brian

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Hold Post Accountable for His Chilling Statement

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February 5, 2015

February 5, 2015

The Honorable Deborah Lee JamesSecretary of the Air ForceU.S. Department of the Air Force1670 Air Force PentagonWashington, DC 20330-1670

Via email:

Dear Secretary James:

We are writing to express our deep concerns about reported comments from Major General James Post that service members who communicate to Congress about the capabilities and successes of the A-10 are committing ''treason.''[1] These comments undermine service members' constitutional rights to petition their government, and appear to violate statutory protections for military whistleblowers.[2] Most importantly, they try to interfere with Congress's ability to learn how these systems are currently performing in combat to address current threats, precisely the kind of information they need to know to conduct their constitutional duties and to oversee the Air Force's operations and programs.

We are also deeply concerned about allegations that the Air Force has initiated retaliatory investigations against service members who have already come forward to Congress.[3] If true, this seems to indicate that there is a broader problem of a toxic culture against whistleblowers. We urge you to ensure that no prohibited personnel actions are taken against any service members who have come forward, and to suspend or remove any officials found to be responsible for initiating retaliatory investigations.

Major General Post's comments seriously call into question his judgment and ability to continue in his role as vice commander of the Air Force's Air Combat Command. Major General Post has not denied making these comments, and while we understand that an investigation is ongoing, we think the known facts merit his immediate removal. At the very least, he should be suspended while the investigation is ongoing and removed if the allegations are proven to be true.

As you are aware, Congress recently expanded whistleblower protections for service members to ensure that they could come forward without fear of retaliation. These reforms were initiated following reports of reprisal against sexual assault survivors, including 62 trainees at Lackland Air Force Base, and against Air National Guard whistleblowers expressing concerns about the F-22's On-Board Oxygen Generation System (OBOGS).[4] Given these previous concerns about the Air Force's treatment of whistleblowers, we believe it is particularly incumbent upon you to send a strong signal that retaliatory behavior will not be tolerated.

We appreciate your attention to this issue, and would welcome the opportunity to discuss this in more detail with you or your staff. If you have any questions or would like additional information, please contact Mandy Smithberger at the Project On Government Oversight's Straus Military Reform Project at 202-347-1122 or msmithberger@pogo.org.

Sincerely,

Project On Government Oversight

Center for Financial Privacy and Human Rights

Government Accountability Project

International Association of Whistleblowers

London Center for Policy Research

National Whistleblower Center

NETWORK, A National Catholic Social Justice Lobby

Peace Action

Taxpayers Protection Alliance

Whistlewatch.org

Elaine Mittleman, Esq.

Kevin Downing

cc: Senator John McCain, Chairman, Senate Armed Services CommitteeSenator Jack Reed, Ranking Member, Senate Armed Services CommitteeRepresentative Mac Thornberry, Chairman, House Armed Services CommitteeRepresentative Adam Smith, Ranking Member, House Armed Services CommitteeMembers of the House and Senate Armed Services CommitteeSenator Susan CollinsSenator Chuck GrassleySenator Mark Warner

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SCORPION-Could This Airplane Replace the A-10 Warthog? (TXT)

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Sun, 12 Apr 2015 05:52

The Fairchild Republic A-10 Thunderbolt. Armed and... in danger? Photo source: Wikimedia Commons.

After more than four decades in service, the A-10 Warthog is due for a replacement. So says the U.S. Air Combat Command.

What's more, ACC says it's already "thinking about" fielding such a replacement. But what might that replacement be?

Last week, we got a clue. As reported by Reuters, the Air Force has recently begun evaluating Textron's (NYSE: TXT ) Scorpion fighter jet as a potential 21st-century replacement for the 20th-century Warthog.

Quoting Air Force Gen. Herbert Carlisle, head of ACC, Reuters reports that the Air Force has done "some research" on Textron's new budget-priced Scorpion. And Carlisle thinks the plane just might be what the Air Force needs to perform close-air support in "contested environments" that could prove lethal to the A-10.

But what exactly is Scorpion, and how does it stack up against the A-10 Thunderbolt Warthog?

Source: Textron AirLand.

Introducing Scorpion Textron describes Scorpion as a modern "surveillance and strike" aircraft boasting:

twin turbofan engines, producing 8,000 lbs. of combined thrusta 45,000-foot top altitudea top speed of 520 mphsix hard points for carrying weapons on its wings (6,200 lbs. capacity)room for 3,000 lbs. more payload in an internal weapons baya flyaway cost of less than $20 million -- and an hourly operations cost of about $3,000Relative to the A-10 Warthog, Textron's Scorpion has about half as much engine power -- but also half the weight. The aircraft's range is roughly equal to the A-10's, but the Scorpion is a better "sprinter," featuring both a faster maximum speed and a slower "stall speed" -- important for flying low-and-slow on ground support missions.

Of course, the biggest difference between Scorpion and the A-10 Warthog is the absence of a "big gun" -- specifically, the 30 mm GAU-8 Avenger rotary cannon that is both the A-10's primary weapon and its defining feature. Designed to kill Soviet tanks in a circa-1980s Cold War confrontation -- and actually used to destroy nearly 900 Soviet-vintage Iraqi tanks in the 1990s Gulf War I -- the A-10's big gun is notably absent from Textron's Scorpion.

Close-up shot of the A-10 Warthog's very big gun. Photo source: Omono via Wikimedia Commons.

But can Scorpion replace the A-10 Warthog without it?

Scorpion's biggest fan Bill Anderson, president of Textron AirLand, thinks so. In a recent phone conversation, Anderson pointed out that Textron originally developed Scorpion to perform a "Multi Mission, ISR/strike platform" role. It thus was not designed to duplicate the A-10's mission; it prefers using precision weapons to attack ground targets from a safe distance out of range of enemy defenses.

That fact addresses the Air Force's concerns about the A-10 Warthog's survivability. And flying high and fast, Scorpion might be a good candidate to take over the A-10's role in some threat environments.

As Anderson explains it, "two abilities are critical" for any aircraft performing close-air support: "The ability to communicate with ground forces, and the ability to find and fix a target." Anderson argues that "Scorpion is very good in both these roles, and can loiter up to five hours," providing ground support as needed through its suite of high-tech, standoff weapons. What's more, while the aircraft doesn't carry an integrated 30 mm cannon, its modular design permits it to carry one or even two cannon "pods" on its wings, to provide a strafing ability when there's a need to get up close and personal.

Textron's Scorpion: No big gun, but room for more than a few big bombs. Photo source: Textron AirLand.

A budget-priced fighter jet for tight fiscal times Most crucially, Textron's Scorpion is both cheap to buy and cheap to fly, and designed to permit easy upgrades over time. This addresses the big problem with modern fighter jets, in that they cost a fortune, take forever to develop, and by the time they're introduced, they're often stuck using out-of-date technology.

Citing research from DARPA, Anderson notes that, in decades past, it was possible to design and build a new fighter jet in five to 10 years. These days, it takes closer to 20 years to bring a new concept to market. Thus, technology that was cutting-edge when the Lockheed Martin's F-22 Raptor and F-35 Lightning II were first envisioned, for example, is now already becoming obsolete -- just as the planes are starting to fly.

To address this problem, Textron built Scorpion with off-the-shelf parts -- taking fully vetted "mature high technology" that is already available, and assembling it into a jet that's modern today -- and can be upgraded as technology advances tomorrow. This permitted an exceptionally fast turnaround time in developing the plane. As Anderson describes it, "From the time we got the 'go' signal, from a clean slate, it took 23 months for Scorpion to take its first test flight."

An attractive proposition As a result, the Scorpion is nearly as cheap to buy as it is to fly. Extrapolating from historical U.S. Air Force data, the current-day cost of a new A-10 would be approximately $18.6 million -- roughly equal to Scorpion's price tag. Theoretically, at least, the Air Force could swap its entire fleet of old A-10s for shiny new Scorpions at a cost of less than $6 billion. (And incidentally, that would be worth about 40% of a year's revenues to Textron.)

They might even be tempted to make such a switch. Air Force figures show that, per flight hour, it costs $17,716 to operate an A-10 Warthog -- whereas Textron says Scorpion will cost just one-sixth of that, giving the Air Force a much reduced operating cost.

Granted, for die-hard supporters of the A-10 Warthog -- and they are legion -- anything less than a full-fledged A-10 probably isn't going to cut it as a replacement for the aging warbird. But for a U.S. Air Force that's increasingly strapped for cash, with much of its budget tied up buying high-end F-35 fighter jets, Textron's Scorpion seems to offer a way to perform low-tech, low-and-slow close-air support on a budget.

Now all Textron has to do is convince the Air Force to buy it.

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Scorpion: It can do tricks. But for close-air support missions, will it do the trick? Photo source: Textron AirLand.

The Air Force's Awesome Attack Plane Has a Pretty Sad Replacement '-- War Is Boring '-- Medium

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Sun, 12 Apr 2015 05:46

A-10 Warthog. Bryan William Jones PhotoThe A-10 is the best warplane for saving lives'Š'--'Štoo bad its days are numberedOn July 24, dozens of U.S. troops in Afghanistan were nearly wiped out by a Taliban ambush. Until two A-10 Warthog attack planes showed up.

It began with a routine patrol to clear a highway of bombs. But the convoy of 12 vehicles and 60 soldiers got stuck when the lead vehicle fell into a ravine and flipped over. Night fell, and the soldiers worked to pull the vehicle out. Meanwhile, the Taliban quietly set up firing positions along a tree line with a view of the stranded soldiers.

At dawn, the Taliban opened fire.

The soldiers were in a bad place. The gunfire pinned them behind their vehicles. The Taliban were then free to move closer for a possible assault on the position, which could have caused potentially horrendous casualties for the Americans.

The A-10s roared in from Bagram Air Field near Kabul.

''I flew over to provide a show of force while my wingman was looking for gunfire below,'' one A-10 pilot said. ''Our goal with the show of force was to break the contact and let the enemy know we were there, but they didn't stop. I think that day the enemy knew they were going to die, so they pushed even harder and began moving closer to our ground forces.''

Flying low and slow, the A-10s strafed the Taliban. The aviators' eyesight'Š'--'Šand the bird's-eye view through the Warthog's big round canopy'Š'--'Šwas instrumental. ''Even with all our top-of-the-line tools today, we still rely on visual references,'' the pilot said.

For two bloody hours, the A-10s dropped three 500-pound bombs and strafed the militant positions 15 times, burning through thousands of 30-millimeter cannon rounds, according to the pilot. The Taliban fighters withdrew, leaving 18 of their dead behind.

Three U.S. troops were wounded. It could have been much worse.

The firefight was only briefly mentioned by the Air Force in a press release. It's one of hundreds of times the A-10 has rescued U.S. ground troops under fire in Iraq and Afghanistan. Its mere presence is often enough to deter an attack.

But the A-10 might not be around much longer.

A-10s in Kandahar, Afghanistan on Nov 6, 2009. David Axe photoThe competitionThe A-10 is a ground-attack airplane'Š'--'Šthe Air Force's only jet designed solely for such missions. The twin-engine fighter was developed during the Cold War to destroy Russian tanks steamrolling through Germany in the event of World War III. Its arsenal of rockets, missiles, bombs and a powerful 30-millimeter cannon destroyed huge numbers of Iraqi tanks during the first Gulf War, and the plane went on to fly regular missions over Iraq, Libya and Afghanistan.

The Warthog flies slow and looks ugly as Hell, but it was cheap to build'Š'--'Šabout $13 million in the early 1980s'Š'--'Šand its turbofan engines sip small amounts of fuel. The best feature is that the plane is essentially a flying gun that's super-lethal against anything on the ground. In recent years, it's also been upgraded with new sensors, wings and more advanced targeting systems.

But the Air Force is faced with a dilemma. Its main jet planned for the coming decades is the F-35 Joint Strike Fighter, a stealthy multi-role warplane equipped for both air-to-air and ground-attack missions. The F-35, which is still in development, could eventually replace most of the Air Force's fighter fleet.

At a cost of at least $400 billion just to develop and build, the F-35 is the most expensive military project ever. (A single F-35 costs more than $100 million.) The Air Force is also being ordered by Congress to trim billions from its share of the defense budget.

Maj. Gen. Steven Kwast, an influential voice in U.S. military doctrine as director of the Quadrennial Defense Review, said the F-35 is here to stay. ''We must be able to project power in contested environments and the Joint Strike Fighter is that machine,'' Kwast told reporters this week.

In military-speak, he means the long-range F-35 is what's needed to extend the range of U.S. fighters into areas where potential foes'Š'--'Šlike China'Š'--'Šcould deny U.S. warships access with a combination of advanced new aircraft and deadly anti-ship missiles. The end of the war in Iraq, and the upcoming U.S. withdrawal from Afghanistan, has led the Pentagon to downplay weapons used for fighting insurgents and plus-up gear for fighting some future war with Beijing.

That's also the conclusion reached by a recent review ordered by Defense Secretary Chuck Hagel, which suggested retiring 120 Warthogs of a total fleet of 343, on top of two squadrons of A-10s that have already been shuttered over the past year.

An A-10's 30-millimeter cannon. Bryan William Jones photoFalse promiseThere's one big problem. The F-35 is not particularly good at what it's designed to do and certainly can't replicate the A-10's performance. The JSF is stealthy, which is okay for avoiding detection and sneaking past enemies before destroying them at long range.

But in a close-range fight, the F-35 is dead.

The reason is how its cockpit is designed. Instead of a bubble-canopy like the A-10's, the F-35's windscreen looks like a giant clamshell. This means an F-35 pilot can see out of the front and sides of the cockpit, but not the back. That's a huge problem in a fast-moving dogfight, and equally problematic while supporting ground troops. A JSF flier could never get the same view of the battlefield that allowed the Warthog jockies to save all those soldiers.

Still, the F-35 will eventually replace the A-10 and be tasked with carrying out the same ground-attack missions currently assigned to the Warthog.

But the JSF just can't do the job. Besides having a terrible view of the battlefield, the F-35 is also too fast and lightly built to loiter over a hot ambush zone'Š'--'Šand its 25-millimeter gun comes with just 180 rounds, compared to the more than 1,100 bullets an A-10 carries. It's worth pointing out that the two Warthogs over the Afghan battle apparently fired all their ammunition.

''Note the actions the F-35 is incapable to perform,'' said Winslow Wheeler, director of the Straus Military Reform Project at the Project on Government Oversight in Washington, D.C. ''Among them long time loiter, low altitude observation of the problem, multiple gun passes with extreme accuracy.''

These things saved American lives. The A-10's replacement? Perhaps not.

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Joint terminal attack controller - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

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Sun, 12 Apr 2015 05:25

A Joint terminal attack controller (JTAC) is the term used in the United States Armed Forces and some other military forces for a qualified service member who directs the action of combat aircraft engaged in close air support and other offensive air operations from a forward position. The term that is used in most other countries, as well as previously in the US and in the relevant NATO standard[1] is Forward Air Controller.[2] The term became effective in the US on September 3, 2003 with the publishing of Joint Publication (JP) 3-09.3 Close Air Support.[3]

Australia[edit]In 2006, the Royal Australian Air Force became the first foreign air force to receive Joint Terminal Attack Controller (JTAC) accreditation from the United States Joint Forces Command (USJFCOM).[4]No. 4 Squadron RAAF runs JTAC training, and provides trained controllers to other units, with its main role being to support the units of the Special Operations Command. JTAC-qualified personnel have served in Afghanistan.[5][6]

United States[edit]In the United States Armed Forces a qualified and current joint terminal attack controller is recognized across the U.S. Department of Defense as being capable and authorized to perform terminal attack control.[citation needed]

United States Marine Corps students are trained at the Expeditionary Warfare Training Group, Pacific (EWTGPAC), and Atlantic (EWTGLANT). United States Air Force students receive their training at Nellis Air Force Base in Nevada, while United States Navy students are trained at the Naval Strike and Air Warfare Center (NSAWC) at Naval Air Station Fallon in Nevada by SEALs assigned to NSAWC. Members of special operations units attend the Special Operations Terminal Attack Control Course (SOTACC) at Yuma Proving Ground, Arizona.[citation needed]

Air Force JTACS also trained at Spangdahlem Air Base, in Germany, through the Joint Firepower Center of Excellence (JFCOE).[7]

Italy has qualified JTAC operators in its tier 1, 2 and 3 teams. Some of these operators have served in Afghanistan, as part of TF45. During the Afghanistan War, AMX ground attack aircraft from the Italian Air Force TF BLACK CATS conducted Close Air Support with JTAC operators on the ground provided by the Italian Army, the Carabinieri, and the Navy and Air Force.[8] The equipment used by Italian JTAC operators is not well publicized, although the equipment used by 185 RRAO has been briefly reported on.[9] The training areas used by Italian JTACs are also kept secret. It has been reported that Italian JTACs will potentially work with the newest gunship, the MC-27J Praetorian in the future.[10]

See also[edit]References[edit]^"NATO STANAG 3797 MINIMUM QUALIFICATIONS FOR FORWARD AIR CONTROLLERS & LASER OPERATORS IN SUPPORT OF FORWARD AIR CONTROLLERS". NATO. ^"Training the RAF's eyes and ears". BBC. February 14, 2009. Retrieved May 7, 2010. I ask if Prince Harry's deployment as a forward air controller, or what the Americans term a "JTAC" (joint tactical air controller or joint terminal attack controller), has boosted the number of volunteers for the job. ^Lieutenant Colonel Steven P. Milliron, Army Aviation. "Army JTAC training--the way ahead.". U.S. Field Artillery Association. Effective 3 September 2003 with the publishing of Joint Publication (JP) 309.3 Tactics. Techniques and Procedures (TTP) for Close Air Support, the joint community codified the requirements for an individual to direct the actions of combat aircraft engaged in CAS and other air operations. This position, called a "joint terminal attack controller" was created to standardize the certification and qualification process for terminal attack controllers to ensure a common capability across the services. The Army needs to develop Soldiers who, from a forward position, can deliver joint indirect fires and direct the actions of joint combat aircraft. The Joint Combat Aircraft (JCA) is the official designation used by the United Kingdom's Ministry of Defence for the F-35 Lightning II, formerly known as the Joint Strike Fighter, and the result of the Joint Strike Fighter competition. ^Defence Magazine, June 2006[dead link]^Allard, Tom (March 17, 2008). "New squadron will aim to cut civilian deaths". The Sydney Morning Herald. Retrieved September 19, 2008. ^Air Power Development Centre (June 2014). "Combat Control in the RAAF". Pathfinder Issue 224. Royal Australian Air Force. ^"Joint Multinational Warriors". 7th U.S. Army Joint Multinational Training Command. Winter 2007. The Joint Fires Center of Excellence exists to train Army and Air Force forward observers and Joint Terminal Attack Controllers. [dead link]^Janez. "Task Force 45". Retrieved November 7, 2014. ^"Home - 185 RRAO". 185 RRAO. Retrieved November 7, 2014. ^"MC-27J Praetorian - Alenia Aermacchi". Retrieved November 7, 2014. External links[edit]

U.S.C. Title 18 - CRIMES AND CRIMINAL PROCEDURE

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Sat, 11 Apr 2015 22:23

U.S.C. Title 18 - CRIMES AND CRIMINAL PROCEDURE18 U.S.C.United States Code, 2011 EditionTitle 18 - CRIMES AND CRIMINAL PROCEDUREPART I - CRIMESCHAPTER 1 - GENERAL PROVISIONSSec. 4 - Misprision of felonyFrom the U.S. Government Printing Office, www.gpo.gov

§4. Misprision of felonyWhoever, having knowledge of the actual commission of a felony cognizable by a court of the United States, conceals and does not as soon as possible make known the same to some judge or other person in civil or military authority under the United States, shall be fined under this title or imprisoned not more than three years, or both.

(June 25, 1948, ch. 645, 62 Stat. 684; Pub. L. 103''322, title XXXIII, §330016(1)(G), Sept. 13, 1994, 108 Stat. 2147.)

Historical and Revision NotesBased on title 18, U.S.C. 1940 ed., §251 (Mar. 4, 1909, ch. 321, §146, 35 Stat. 1114).

Changes in phraseology only.

Amendments1994'--Pub. L. 103''322 substituted ''fined under this title'' for ''fined not more than $500''.

U.S.C. Title 18 - CRIMES AND CRIMINAL PROCEDURE18 U.S.C.United States Code, 2011 EditionTitle 18 - CRIMES AND CRIMINAL PROCEDUREPART I - CRIMESCHAPTER 1 - GENERAL PROVISIONSSec. 4 - Misprision of felonyFrom the U.S. Government Printing Office, www.gpo.gov

§4. Misprision of felonyWhoever, having knowledge of the actual commission of a felony cognizable by a court of the United States, conceals and does not as soon as possible make known the same to some judge or other person in civil or military authority under the United States, shall be fined under this title or imprisoned not more than three years, or both.

(June 25, 1948, ch. 645, 62 Stat. 684; Pub. L. 103''322, title XXXIII, §330016(1)(G), Sept. 13, 1994, 108 Stat. 2147.)

Historical and Revision NotesBased on title 18, U.S.C. 1940 ed., §251 (Mar. 4, 1909, ch. 321, §146, 35 Stat. 1114).

Changes in phraseology only.

Amendments1994'--Pub. L. 103''322 substituted ''fined under this title'' for ''fined not more than $500''.

Microsoft seeks to recruit autistic workers - BBC News

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Thu, 09 Apr 2015 03:13

The new jobs will be based at Microsoft's HQ in Redmond, USA Microsoft says it wants to hire more people with autism in full-time roles.

The tech giant is to start by offering 10 places on a pilot scheme based at its Redmond headquarters.

Senior executive Mary Ellen Smith said: "People with autism bring strengths that we need at Microsoft."

The UK's National Autistic Society welcomed the move but said that other firms should do more to tap into the skills offered by many people with autism.

Announcing the new scheme in a blog, Ms Smith said: "Each individual is different, some have an amazing ability to retain information, think at a level of detail and depth or excel in math or code."

Specialist recruitment firm, Specialisterne, will help run a new hiring scheme.

The firm, which operates in Denmark and the UK, works with several IT companies, and in other sectors, to promote the skills of people with autism for specific vacancies.

Sarah Lambert, from the National Autistic Society, said: "It's encouraging to see a global company like Microsoft recognise the untapped potential of adults with autism.

"Many may have strengths such as accuracy, a good eye for detail and reliability, which can benefit all sorts of businesses, not just the technology industry.

"However, at the moment, just 15% of adults with autism in the UK are in full-time employment.

"Simple adjustments, like making job interviews more accessible and providing support to help those in work understand the 'unwritten rules' of the workplace can unlock the potential of a whole section of society."